Atlantic Revolutions
New political ideas led many to believe in the basic rights of human beings. Eventually, such thinking contributed to key revolutions that impacted the western world and forever altered the course of history.
English (Puritan) Revolution
During the 1600s, conflict arose between the king of England and the British Parliament. At the heart of the controversy was the question of power. Who really ruled England? King James I believed that God, Himself, gave kings their thrones and therefore it was he, as king, who should have ultimate say over the affairs of England. This belief that James I held became known as divine right. Divine right was the idea that a ruler received the right to rule from God and is how absolute rulers justified maintaining complete control of the government. Parliament, however, disagreed. Parliament is Great Britain’s legislative body. It originally began during the Middle Ages as a body of noblemen who counseled the king. It eventually developed into an official body of government consisting of two houses: the House of Lords, which consisted of noblemen; and the House of Commons, elected by the people and consisting of representatives from among those classes below the nobility.
Revolution erupted during the reign of James’ successor, Charles I. Charles tried to resist limitations placed on his power by Parliament and sought to impose Catholicism on the Church of England. This greatly offended members of the House of Commons because many of them were Calvinist known as Puritans. The Puritans saw Charles’ actions, not only as a dangerous abuse of power, but as an offense to God as well. In 1642, a Puritan leader named Oliver Cromwell led an army in open rebellion against the king. The English Revolution or Puritan Revolution resulted in the overthrow and execution of Charles I, with Cromwell assuming leadership and expelling members of Parliament who opposed his actions. A short time later, he dissolved the Parliament, assumed the title “Lord Protector of England,” and established a military dictatorship until his death in 1658.
“Glorious Revolution”
Following the death of Cromwell, England re-established the monarchy under Charles’ son, Charles II. This period became known as the Restoration. Under the new monarchy, Parliament had to approve all taxes and the king recognized that he needed its consent to carry out many of his decisions. Following Charles II, his brother, James II, became king of England. James was a Catholic and viewed as a threat by members of the Anglican Church (another name for the Church of England). Since James had no male heir and both his daughters were Protestants, many trusted that after he died on of them would become queen. However, when James’ second wife, also a Catholic gave birth to a son, Protestant leaders invited James’ son-in-law, a Dutchman named William of Orange, to invade England and assume the throne.
William and his wife, Mary, raised an army and landed in England in 1688 with the support of the Church of England. James and his family fled to France, surrendering the throne without a fight. The Glorious Revolution resulted in William and Mary assuming leadership of England. In exchange for Parliament’s support, they agreed to give even more power to the legislature and accepted an English Bill of Rights. This Bill of Rights increased the powers of Parliament while limiting the powers of the king. It also granted freedom of worship to Puritans while continuing to limit the rights of Catholics. Together, the English and Glorious revolutions ripped apart old beliefs about the divine rights of kings, firmly established Parliament as the ultimate power within the British government, and laid the foundation of England’s limited monarchy (monarchy in which the king/queen is limited by laws rather than given unlimited authority).
The American Revolution
Less than a century later, another revolution occurred that forever changed the world and established new principles of government. Thirteen of Great Britain’s North American colonies declared independence in 1776 and launched what came to be known as the American Revolution. The revolution was based on many of the ideas of the Enlightenment, such as the notion of natural rights and the idea that a social contract exists between governments and citizens. In the Declaration of Independence, the Founding Fathers of the United States asserted that such natural rights existed and that the British government had violated its social contract. Just as Parliament had accused the king of assuming too much power to justify the English Revolution, the colonies now claimed that Parliament had assumed too much power by taxing them without representation. Against all odds, the American Revolution succeeded, establishing the United States’ independence and a new representative government that would serve as a model for future democracies.
The French Revolution
The French Revolution marked the end of Europe’s old order of a world dominated by rich aristocrats and the beginning of a new order valuing equality, representative government, individual rights, and nationalism. The revolution occurred over the course of a decade and came in a number of stages.
Old Regime
Prior to 1789, French society was divided between three estates. The First Estate was the clergy (Catholic bishops, priests, etc.). The Second Estate was the nobility (rich, land-owning aristocrats), which occupied many of the nation’s positions of leadership and influence. The Third Estate consisted of the more common classes and made up the majority of the population. The Third Estate included peasants, farmers, shopkeepers, and the bourgeoisie (middle class) consisting of bankers, merchants, lawyers, etc. Many members of the bourgeoisie supported the political ideas of the Enlightenment and, along with many of the nobility, wanted to reform the French monarchy.
The National Assembly
In the late 1780s, economic hardship, food shortages, discontent over the nation’s tax system and land policies, and the near financial collapse of the government forced King Louis XVI to call an assembly of France’s legislative body in 1789 (it had not met for over 150 years). Although each estate was represented, members of the Third Estate quickly seized control, called themselves the National Assembly, and drew up a new constitution. When the king threatened to use force to put down the new assembly, an angry mob stormed a prison and armory known as the Bastille. The mob cut off the head of the garrison leader defending the fortress and marched it through the streets of Paris. Soon, peasant uprisings filled the French countryside.
The National Convention
The National Assembly’s Constitution of 1791 replaced the old order of French government with a limited monarchy. Meanwhile, other European nations grew alarmed. Foreign kings feared that the revolutionary spirit might spread to their countries as well. Soon, France found itself at war with many of its European neighbors. Early military defeats and continued economic hardships led to another change in government. A radical mob stormed the royal palace, took the king captive, and forced the assembly to suspend the French monarchy. The new National Convention took charge, abolished the monarchy, and executed the king of France. Many Frenchmen felt that such actions were too drastic and refused to support the National Convention. At the same time, other European nations were appalled by the king’s execution and prepared to invade France. Desperate, the National Convention empowered a group called the Committee of Public Safety to deal with the crisis.
The Reign of Terror
A party of radicals known as the Jacobins soon controlled the Committee of Public Safety. Under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre, they quickly raised an army of well over one million Frenchmen that pushed back France’s foreign enemies. France’s ability to enlist so many citizens demonstrated that a new era had arrived. Previously, wars were seen as battles between rulers. Now, for the first time, they were perceived as a fight for one’s nation. In this way, the French Revolution greatly contributed to the rise of nationalism (pride in one’s country).
Robespierre and his followers then set their sights on enemies inside France. They launched a period known as the Reign of Terror. The state executed thousands of French citizens on the guillotine (contraption that cut off people’s heads). Eventually, the Terror ended when a rival group seized control of the National Convention and executed Robespierre in July, 1794.
The Directory
In 1795, a new constitution passed power to five directors, known as the Directory. Unfortunately, the period of the Directory was riddled with corruption and political rivalries between royalists who wanted to return the monarchy and radicals still enraged by ongoing economic problems. More and more, the Directory looked to the army to maintain its position of power. Finally, in 1799, one of the army’s most popular general took advantage of the political situation to seize power and eventually declared himself emperor of France. The new emperor of France was Napoleon Bonaparte.
Haitian Revolution
Revolution in France soon spread to some of its colonies. In 1791, black slaves in Saint-Dominique rebelled against their white masters after learning of the revolution in Europe. A gifted and educated slave named Toussaint L’Ouverture quickly became their leader. Toussaint, who continually claimed to be a Frenchman acting in the spirit of the revolution, proclaimed himself ruler and freed all the slaves. When French troops arrived in 1802, Toussaint was deceived and taken prisoner. He died soon after in a French dungeon. His followers, however, did not give up the fight. They successfully turned back the French and established the new nation of Haiti.
Revolutions in Latin America
During the early 1800s, many creoles (people of European descent who were born and lived in Latin American colonies) began to feel a great deal of discontent towards Spain and Portugal. They resented what they saw as unfair economic policies. Inspired by the United States’ success, a number of successful Latin American Revolutions occurred during the first quarter of the nineteenth century. By 1810, Jose de San Martin led forces that expelled the Spanish from Argentina. Believing that all of South America must be free of Spain’s rule, Martin crossed the Andes Mountains to surprise the Spanish and defeat them at the Battle of Chacabuco in 1817. Meanwhile, another great leader, Simon Bolivar, liberated Venezuela, Colombia (then called New Granada), and Ecuador. The two eventually joined forces to finish driving the Spanish out of South America. Mexico declared independence in 1821. By 1823, Central America was also free and eventually divided into five republics.
Meanwhile, in 1822, Brazil declared independence from Portugal. Concerned that European nations might act to reinstate their authority, U.S. President James Monroe issued his Monroe Doctrine guaranteeing the independence of the new Latin American nations. However, Monroe’s bold words alone were not enough to deter European action. Fortunately for Latin Americans, Great Britain wanted them free so that they could engage in trade with England. More than any promise by a U.S. president (at the time, the U.S. was not very powerful), it was Britain’s navy that shielded the new nations from the threat of European invasion.
In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power in France. In 1804, he had himself crowned Napoleon I, Emperor of France. Napoleon made peace with the Catholic Church (previously viewed as an enemy of the revolution) and solidified his support among many landowners. Napoleon also provided France with its first set of national laws since the revolution: the Napoleonic Codes. These laws guaranteed equality under the law and upheld many principles of the revolution. Napoleon is most remembered, however, for his military campaigns. He defeated Austria, Prussia, and Russia by 1807, making him master over much of Europe. Under Napoleon, France’s borders extended from the Rhine River to northern Italy. Meanwhile, he exercised authority over various dependent states (Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and parts of Germany). He also forced nations he defeated to join him in his wars with Great Britain. As napoleon acquired more territory and influence, ideas and principles of the French Revolution, such as equality, nationalism, and religious toleration, spread to other countries.
Napoleon eventually fell for several reasons. For one, he could never defeat the British. Because England is on an island, Napoleon’s impressive army could not march across its borders as it had other nations. Secondly, as the French empire spread, so did nationalism. Citizens of other nations now began to develop the same sense of pride in their country. As a result, they grew ever bitter against Napoleon, viewing him as a foreign oppressor. Finally, despite his military brilliance, Napoleon made some key mistakes. Most notably was his decision to invade Russia in 1812. Although he knew an invasion was risky, he felt he had little choice given Russia’s unwillingness to remain unified with Napoleon in his efforts against the British. Rather than engage Napoleon in a head-to-head battle, the Russians continually retreated, drawing Napoleon further and further into their territory. Along the way, they burned their own towns and destroyed crops to deny the French any supplies or food. The Russians even burned Moscow. Napoleon’s forces, tired and starving, then retreated in winter temperatures well below freezing. Many died along the way. Other European armies rose up and attacked the staggering French army, conquering Paris in March 1814 and exiling Napoleon to the island of Elba.
The European powers then supported France in reestablishing its monarchy under King Louis XVIII, believing they had heard the last of the French emperor. Napoleon escaped, however, and returned to France. French authorities quickly dispatched troops to arrest and, if necessary, kill the former emperor. When Napoleon found himself halted by a regiment of soldiers, he dismounted from his horse, too several steps towards them, held open his coat and called out, “If you would shoot your emperor, then do so now!” Rather than firing, the inspired troops fell in behind their hero. Thus began Napoleon’s One Hundred Days from March to June 1815, in which he made one last attempt to re-establish his empire. It appeared that Napoleon might be successful until the Battle of Waterloo in Belgium. At Waterloo, he met a combined European force under the command of the British Duke of Wellington. Wellington lured Napoleon onto a battle field with which the British were more familiar and defeated the French army, ending Napoleon’s campaign.
English (Puritan) Revolution
During the 1600s, conflict arose between the king of England and the British Parliament. At the heart of the controversy was the question of power. Who really ruled England? King James I believed that God, Himself, gave kings their thrones and therefore it was he, as king, who should have ultimate say over the affairs of England. This belief that James I held became known as divine right. Divine right was the idea that a ruler received the right to rule from God and is how absolute rulers justified maintaining complete control of the government. Parliament, however, disagreed. Parliament is Great Britain’s legislative body. It originally began during the Middle Ages as a body of noblemen who counseled the king. It eventually developed into an official body of government consisting of two houses: the House of Lords, which consisted of noblemen; and the House of Commons, elected by the people and consisting of representatives from among those classes below the nobility.
Revolution erupted during the reign of James’ successor, Charles I. Charles tried to resist limitations placed on his power by Parliament and sought to impose Catholicism on the Church of England. This greatly offended members of the House of Commons because many of them were Calvinist known as Puritans. The Puritans saw Charles’ actions, not only as a dangerous abuse of power, but as an offense to God as well. In 1642, a Puritan leader named Oliver Cromwell led an army in open rebellion against the king. The English Revolution or Puritan Revolution resulted in the overthrow and execution of Charles I, with Cromwell assuming leadership and expelling members of Parliament who opposed his actions. A short time later, he dissolved the Parliament, assumed the title “Lord Protector of England,” and established a military dictatorship until his death in 1658.
“Glorious Revolution”
Following the death of Cromwell, England re-established the monarchy under Charles’ son, Charles II. This period became known as the Restoration. Under the new monarchy, Parliament had to approve all taxes and the king recognized that he needed its consent to carry out many of his decisions. Following Charles II, his brother, James II, became king of England. James was a Catholic and viewed as a threat by members of the Anglican Church (another name for the Church of England). Since James had no male heir and both his daughters were Protestants, many trusted that after he died on of them would become queen. However, when James’ second wife, also a Catholic gave birth to a son, Protestant leaders invited James’ son-in-law, a Dutchman named William of Orange, to invade England and assume the throne.
William and his wife, Mary, raised an army and landed in England in 1688 with the support of the Church of England. James and his family fled to France, surrendering the throne without a fight. The Glorious Revolution resulted in William and Mary assuming leadership of England. In exchange for Parliament’s support, they agreed to give even more power to the legislature and accepted an English Bill of Rights. This Bill of Rights increased the powers of Parliament while limiting the powers of the king. It also granted freedom of worship to Puritans while continuing to limit the rights of Catholics. Together, the English and Glorious revolutions ripped apart old beliefs about the divine rights of kings, firmly established Parliament as the ultimate power within the British government, and laid the foundation of England’s limited monarchy (monarchy in which the king/queen is limited by laws rather than given unlimited authority).
The American Revolution
Less than a century later, another revolution occurred that forever changed the world and established new principles of government. Thirteen of Great Britain’s North American colonies declared independence in 1776 and launched what came to be known as the American Revolution. The revolution was based on many of the ideas of the Enlightenment, such as the notion of natural rights and the idea that a social contract exists between governments and citizens. In the Declaration of Independence, the Founding Fathers of the United States asserted that such natural rights existed and that the British government had violated its social contract. Just as Parliament had accused the king of assuming too much power to justify the English Revolution, the colonies now claimed that Parliament had assumed too much power by taxing them without representation. Against all odds, the American Revolution succeeded, establishing the United States’ independence and a new representative government that would serve as a model for future democracies.
The French Revolution
The French Revolution marked the end of Europe’s old order of a world dominated by rich aristocrats and the beginning of a new order valuing equality, representative government, individual rights, and nationalism. The revolution occurred over the course of a decade and came in a number of stages.
Old Regime
Prior to 1789, French society was divided between three estates. The First Estate was the clergy (Catholic bishops, priests, etc.). The Second Estate was the nobility (rich, land-owning aristocrats), which occupied many of the nation’s positions of leadership and influence. The Third Estate consisted of the more common classes and made up the majority of the population. The Third Estate included peasants, farmers, shopkeepers, and the bourgeoisie (middle class) consisting of bankers, merchants, lawyers, etc. Many members of the bourgeoisie supported the political ideas of the Enlightenment and, along with many of the nobility, wanted to reform the French monarchy.
The National Assembly
In the late 1780s, economic hardship, food shortages, discontent over the nation’s tax system and land policies, and the near financial collapse of the government forced King Louis XVI to call an assembly of France’s legislative body in 1789 (it had not met for over 150 years). Although each estate was represented, members of the Third Estate quickly seized control, called themselves the National Assembly, and drew up a new constitution. When the king threatened to use force to put down the new assembly, an angry mob stormed a prison and armory known as the Bastille. The mob cut off the head of the garrison leader defending the fortress and marched it through the streets of Paris. Soon, peasant uprisings filled the French countryside.
The National Convention
The National Assembly’s Constitution of 1791 replaced the old order of French government with a limited monarchy. Meanwhile, other European nations grew alarmed. Foreign kings feared that the revolutionary spirit might spread to their countries as well. Soon, France found itself at war with many of its European neighbors. Early military defeats and continued economic hardships led to another change in government. A radical mob stormed the royal palace, took the king captive, and forced the assembly to suspend the French monarchy. The new National Convention took charge, abolished the monarchy, and executed the king of France. Many Frenchmen felt that such actions were too drastic and refused to support the National Convention. At the same time, other European nations were appalled by the king’s execution and prepared to invade France. Desperate, the National Convention empowered a group called the Committee of Public Safety to deal with the crisis.
The Reign of Terror
A party of radicals known as the Jacobins soon controlled the Committee of Public Safety. Under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre, they quickly raised an army of well over one million Frenchmen that pushed back France’s foreign enemies. France’s ability to enlist so many citizens demonstrated that a new era had arrived. Previously, wars were seen as battles between rulers. Now, for the first time, they were perceived as a fight for one’s nation. In this way, the French Revolution greatly contributed to the rise of nationalism (pride in one’s country).
Robespierre and his followers then set their sights on enemies inside France. They launched a period known as the Reign of Terror. The state executed thousands of French citizens on the guillotine (contraption that cut off people’s heads). Eventually, the Terror ended when a rival group seized control of the National Convention and executed Robespierre in July, 1794.
The Directory
In 1795, a new constitution passed power to five directors, known as the Directory. Unfortunately, the period of the Directory was riddled with corruption and political rivalries between royalists who wanted to return the monarchy and radicals still enraged by ongoing economic problems. More and more, the Directory looked to the army to maintain its position of power. Finally, in 1799, one of the army’s most popular general took advantage of the political situation to seize power and eventually declared himself emperor of France. The new emperor of France was Napoleon Bonaparte.
Haitian Revolution
Revolution in France soon spread to some of its colonies. In 1791, black slaves in Saint-Dominique rebelled against their white masters after learning of the revolution in Europe. A gifted and educated slave named Toussaint L’Ouverture quickly became their leader. Toussaint, who continually claimed to be a Frenchman acting in the spirit of the revolution, proclaimed himself ruler and freed all the slaves. When French troops arrived in 1802, Toussaint was deceived and taken prisoner. He died soon after in a French dungeon. His followers, however, did not give up the fight. They successfully turned back the French and established the new nation of Haiti.
Revolutions in Latin America
During the early 1800s, many creoles (people of European descent who were born and lived in Latin American colonies) began to feel a great deal of discontent towards Spain and Portugal. They resented what they saw as unfair economic policies. Inspired by the United States’ success, a number of successful Latin American Revolutions occurred during the first quarter of the nineteenth century. By 1810, Jose de San Martin led forces that expelled the Spanish from Argentina. Believing that all of South America must be free of Spain’s rule, Martin crossed the Andes Mountains to surprise the Spanish and defeat them at the Battle of Chacabuco in 1817. Meanwhile, another great leader, Simon Bolivar, liberated Venezuela, Colombia (then called New Granada), and Ecuador. The two eventually joined forces to finish driving the Spanish out of South America. Mexico declared independence in 1821. By 1823, Central America was also free and eventually divided into five republics.
Meanwhile, in 1822, Brazil declared independence from Portugal. Concerned that European nations might act to reinstate their authority, U.S. President James Monroe issued his Monroe Doctrine guaranteeing the independence of the new Latin American nations. However, Monroe’s bold words alone were not enough to deter European action. Fortunately for Latin Americans, Great Britain wanted them free so that they could engage in trade with England. More than any promise by a U.S. president (at the time, the U.S. was not very powerful), it was Britain’s navy that shielded the new nations from the threat of European invasion.
In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power in France. In 1804, he had himself crowned Napoleon I, Emperor of France. Napoleon made peace with the Catholic Church (previously viewed as an enemy of the revolution) and solidified his support among many landowners. Napoleon also provided France with its first set of national laws since the revolution: the Napoleonic Codes. These laws guaranteed equality under the law and upheld many principles of the revolution. Napoleon is most remembered, however, for his military campaigns. He defeated Austria, Prussia, and Russia by 1807, making him master over much of Europe. Under Napoleon, France’s borders extended from the Rhine River to northern Italy. Meanwhile, he exercised authority over various dependent states (Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and parts of Germany). He also forced nations he defeated to join him in his wars with Great Britain. As napoleon acquired more territory and influence, ideas and principles of the French Revolution, such as equality, nationalism, and religious toleration, spread to other countries.
Napoleon eventually fell for several reasons. For one, he could never defeat the British. Because England is on an island, Napoleon’s impressive army could not march across its borders as it had other nations. Secondly, as the French empire spread, so did nationalism. Citizens of other nations now began to develop the same sense of pride in their country. As a result, they grew ever bitter against Napoleon, viewing him as a foreign oppressor. Finally, despite his military brilliance, Napoleon made some key mistakes. Most notably was his decision to invade Russia in 1812. Although he knew an invasion was risky, he felt he had little choice given Russia’s unwillingness to remain unified with Napoleon in his efforts against the British. Rather than engage Napoleon in a head-to-head battle, the Russians continually retreated, drawing Napoleon further and further into their territory. Along the way, they burned their own towns and destroyed crops to deny the French any supplies or food. The Russians even burned Moscow. Napoleon’s forces, tired and starving, then retreated in winter temperatures well below freezing. Many died along the way. Other European armies rose up and attacked the staggering French army, conquering Paris in March 1814 and exiling Napoleon to the island of Elba.
The European powers then supported France in reestablishing its monarchy under King Louis XVIII, believing they had heard the last of the French emperor. Napoleon escaped, however, and returned to France. French authorities quickly dispatched troops to arrest and, if necessary, kill the former emperor. When Napoleon found himself halted by a regiment of soldiers, he dismounted from his horse, too several steps towards them, held open his coat and called out, “If you would shoot your emperor, then do so now!” Rather than firing, the inspired troops fell in behind their hero. Thus began Napoleon’s One Hundred Days from March to June 1815, in which he made one last attempt to re-establish his empire. It appeared that Napoleon might be successful until the Battle of Waterloo in Belgium. At Waterloo, he met a combined European force under the command of the British Duke of Wellington. Wellington lured Napoleon onto a battle field with which the British were more familiar and defeated the French army, ending Napoleon’s campaign.