Development of Asia
The Qing Dynasty
The Chinese resisted the new Manchu rulers. Rebels seized the island of Taiwan. To more easily identify rebels, the government ordered all Chinese men to adopt Manchu dress and hairstyles. Under penalty of death, they were to shave their foreheads and braid their hair into a pigtail called a queue. The Manchus were accepted gradually, and the Qing dynasty flourished. A series of strong emperors corrected social and economic ills, and restored peace and prosperity. The Qing maintained the Ming political system. The Manchus dealt in two ways with the fact that they were ethnically and culturally different from their subjects: (1) They preserved their own identities by having a different legal status, maintaining large landholdings, and forming separate Manchu military units called banners. (2) They brought Chinese into the top ranks of the imperial administration, so they showed a welcome willingness to share power.
Kangxi was perhaps China’s greatest emperor. He ruled from 1661 to 1722. He was highly disciplined and diligent. He calmed the unrest along the frontiers and won the support of scholars by supporting the arts and letters. Kangxi was quite tolerant of Christians. Christian missionaries were quite active, and hundreds of Chinese officials became Catholics. His successor suppressed Christianity in China.
The first signs of internal decay of the dynasty appeared during the reign of Qianlong (1736 to 1795). Corrupt officials and high taxes led to rural unrest. Expanding population caused hardships to the peasants. A peasant revolt known as the White Lotus Rebellion (1796 to 1804) was suppressed, but at great financial expense. The imperial treasury was severely strained.
The Qing government sold trade privileges to the Europeans but, to limit contact between foreigners and the Chinese, they confined the traders to a small island. Traders could stay there only for certain months of the year. In 1793, a British mission led by Lord George Macartney tried to win more liberal trade policies. The emperor wrote King George III that China had no need of “your country’s manufactures.” Later, China would pay for this rejection.
Tokugawa Japan
Japan was in chaos at the end of the fifteenth century. The shogunate had collapsed. Daimyo, the heads of noble families, controlled their own lands and warred with each other. Soon a reversal due to three powerful political figures would unify Japan.
Oda Nobunaga seized the capital of Kyoto and placed the shogun under his control. Toyotomi Hideyoshi succeeded him. He moved the capital to Osaka. By 1590 he had persuaded most of the daimyo to accept his authority. Tokugawa Ieyasu, the powerful daimyo of Edo, succeeded him in 1598. He took the title of shogun in 1603 and completed the unification the earlier rulers had begun. Tokugawa shoguns remained in power at Edo, their capital, until 1868. Their rule brought a long period of peace known as the “Great Peace.”
Europeans in Japan
The first European traders, Portuguese, arrived in 1543. Soon Portuguese ships were regularly taking part in the regional trade among Japan, China, and Southeast Asia. The visitors were welcome. Goods like tobacco, clocks, and eyeglasses attracted the Japanese, and the rulers were especially interested in European weapons. The first Jesuit missionary, Francis Xavier, arrived in 1549. Within 50 years thousands of Japanese had converted to Christianity. The Jesuit practice of destroying shrines caused a reaction, and Hideyoshi prohibited Christian activities in his lands. Finally, Tokugawa Ieyasu expelled the missionaries and persecuted Japanese Christians. European merchants were then expelled. Only a small Dutch presence in Nagasaki was permitted. Dutch ships could dock there only once a year and could remain for only two or three months.
Tokugawa Rule
Tokugawa rulers tried to control Japan’s feudal system. The state was divided into about 250 territories called hans, or domains. A daimyo ruled each. The shogunate controlled the daimyo by a hostage system. In the hostage system daimyo had to maintain two residences—one in their own lands and one in Edo, where the shogun lived. If the daimyo was absent from Edo, his family had to stay there. During the Great Peace, many samurai who had served the daimyo ceased being warriors and managed the lands of the daimyo.
Economic Changes in China
The population grew from 80 to 300 million between 1390 and the end of the 1700's. A long period of peace and stability was one reason. Another was that a faster-growing species of rice increased the food supply. China’s economy was changing from 1500 to 1800. There was less land for each family. By the 1700s almost all available farmland was under production. Shortages led to unrest. Manufacturing and trade increased during this period. Nonetheless, China did not develop the commercial capitalism—private business based on profit—that Europe did. One reason is that merchants were not as independent in China. Government controlled trade and manufacturing and levied high taxes on it.
Chinese Daily Life
The Confucian emphasis on family remained strong and contributed to the stability of Chinese society. The family met its members’ needs, and the members were expected to sacrifice their individual desires for the good of the entire family. The ideal family in Qing China was the extended family of as many as four generations. Sons brought their wives to live in the home. Unmarried daughters remained in the home. The elderly were highly respected and cared for. The clan of up to hundreds of related families was also important. A clan council and religious and social activities linked the families. Wealthier families helped poorer families within the clan.
Economic and Social Changes in Japan
A major economic change occurred under the Tokugawa. Trade and manufacturing began to flourish as never before, especially in Edo, Kyoto, and Osaka. The Confucian view of these pursuits as inferior was breaking down. By 1750 Edo was one of the world’s largest cities, with a population of almost one million. A merchant class emerged, and banking and a paper money system developed. Some peasant families benefited from this change by exploiting the growing need for cash crops, or crops grown for sale. Most peasants experienced declining profits and rising costs and taxes, however. Many had to become tenants or to work as hired help. Almost seven thousand peasant revolts and demonstrations against high taxes occurred during the Tokugawa Era.
Changes in the Tokugawa period affected the class system and the role of women. The class system became rigid. Rulers established strict distinctions among the four main classes: warriors, peasants, artisans, and merchants. Intermarriage was forbidden. The emperor and court were at the top of the social hierarchy. Next came the warrior class, composed of the shogun, daimyo, samurai, and ronin, in order of decreasing importance. Daimyo served the shogun and samurai served the daimyo. Ronin were warriors without masters who traveled around in search of work. Next down were farmers, who had a privileged position but were often poor. Artisans such as carpenters and sword makers came next. The lowest class was the merchants because they profited from the labor of others. At the very bottom were Japan’s outcasts, the eta. The Tokugawa enacted strict laws to regulate the eta’s places of residence, dress, and hairstyles.
The role of women became more restricted, a bit more in the samurai class, where Confucian values were regarded more highly than among commoners. Males had broad authority over property, divorce, and marriage. The wife moved in with the husband’s family. If she did not meet their expectations, the husband often divorced her. Even so, both sexes worked in the fields.
The Chinese resisted the new Manchu rulers. Rebels seized the island of Taiwan. To more easily identify rebels, the government ordered all Chinese men to adopt Manchu dress and hairstyles. Under penalty of death, they were to shave their foreheads and braid their hair into a pigtail called a queue. The Manchus were accepted gradually, and the Qing dynasty flourished. A series of strong emperors corrected social and economic ills, and restored peace and prosperity. The Qing maintained the Ming political system. The Manchus dealt in two ways with the fact that they were ethnically and culturally different from their subjects: (1) They preserved their own identities by having a different legal status, maintaining large landholdings, and forming separate Manchu military units called banners. (2) They brought Chinese into the top ranks of the imperial administration, so they showed a welcome willingness to share power.
Kangxi was perhaps China’s greatest emperor. He ruled from 1661 to 1722. He was highly disciplined and diligent. He calmed the unrest along the frontiers and won the support of scholars by supporting the arts and letters. Kangxi was quite tolerant of Christians. Christian missionaries were quite active, and hundreds of Chinese officials became Catholics. His successor suppressed Christianity in China.
The first signs of internal decay of the dynasty appeared during the reign of Qianlong (1736 to 1795). Corrupt officials and high taxes led to rural unrest. Expanding population caused hardships to the peasants. A peasant revolt known as the White Lotus Rebellion (1796 to 1804) was suppressed, but at great financial expense. The imperial treasury was severely strained.
The Qing government sold trade privileges to the Europeans but, to limit contact between foreigners and the Chinese, they confined the traders to a small island. Traders could stay there only for certain months of the year. In 1793, a British mission led by Lord George Macartney tried to win more liberal trade policies. The emperor wrote King George III that China had no need of “your country’s manufactures.” Later, China would pay for this rejection.
Tokugawa Japan
Japan was in chaos at the end of the fifteenth century. The shogunate had collapsed. Daimyo, the heads of noble families, controlled their own lands and warred with each other. Soon a reversal due to three powerful political figures would unify Japan.
Oda Nobunaga seized the capital of Kyoto and placed the shogun under his control. Toyotomi Hideyoshi succeeded him. He moved the capital to Osaka. By 1590 he had persuaded most of the daimyo to accept his authority. Tokugawa Ieyasu, the powerful daimyo of Edo, succeeded him in 1598. He took the title of shogun in 1603 and completed the unification the earlier rulers had begun. Tokugawa shoguns remained in power at Edo, their capital, until 1868. Their rule brought a long period of peace known as the “Great Peace.”
Europeans in Japan
The first European traders, Portuguese, arrived in 1543. Soon Portuguese ships were regularly taking part in the regional trade among Japan, China, and Southeast Asia. The visitors were welcome. Goods like tobacco, clocks, and eyeglasses attracted the Japanese, and the rulers were especially interested in European weapons. The first Jesuit missionary, Francis Xavier, arrived in 1549. Within 50 years thousands of Japanese had converted to Christianity. The Jesuit practice of destroying shrines caused a reaction, and Hideyoshi prohibited Christian activities in his lands. Finally, Tokugawa Ieyasu expelled the missionaries and persecuted Japanese Christians. European merchants were then expelled. Only a small Dutch presence in Nagasaki was permitted. Dutch ships could dock there only once a year and could remain for only two or three months.
Tokugawa Rule
Tokugawa rulers tried to control Japan’s feudal system. The state was divided into about 250 territories called hans, or domains. A daimyo ruled each. The shogunate controlled the daimyo by a hostage system. In the hostage system daimyo had to maintain two residences—one in their own lands and one in Edo, where the shogun lived. If the daimyo was absent from Edo, his family had to stay there. During the Great Peace, many samurai who had served the daimyo ceased being warriors and managed the lands of the daimyo.
Economic Changes in China
The population grew from 80 to 300 million between 1390 and the end of the 1700's. A long period of peace and stability was one reason. Another was that a faster-growing species of rice increased the food supply. China’s economy was changing from 1500 to 1800. There was less land for each family. By the 1700s almost all available farmland was under production. Shortages led to unrest. Manufacturing and trade increased during this period. Nonetheless, China did not develop the commercial capitalism—private business based on profit—that Europe did. One reason is that merchants were not as independent in China. Government controlled trade and manufacturing and levied high taxes on it.
Chinese Daily Life
The Confucian emphasis on family remained strong and contributed to the stability of Chinese society. The family met its members’ needs, and the members were expected to sacrifice their individual desires for the good of the entire family. The ideal family in Qing China was the extended family of as many as four generations. Sons brought their wives to live in the home. Unmarried daughters remained in the home. The elderly were highly respected and cared for. The clan of up to hundreds of related families was also important. A clan council and religious and social activities linked the families. Wealthier families helped poorer families within the clan.
Economic and Social Changes in Japan
A major economic change occurred under the Tokugawa. Trade and manufacturing began to flourish as never before, especially in Edo, Kyoto, and Osaka. The Confucian view of these pursuits as inferior was breaking down. By 1750 Edo was one of the world’s largest cities, with a population of almost one million. A merchant class emerged, and banking and a paper money system developed. Some peasant families benefited from this change by exploiting the growing need for cash crops, or crops grown for sale. Most peasants experienced declining profits and rising costs and taxes, however. Many had to become tenants or to work as hired help. Almost seven thousand peasant revolts and demonstrations against high taxes occurred during the Tokugawa Era.
Changes in the Tokugawa period affected the class system and the role of women. The class system became rigid. Rulers established strict distinctions among the four main classes: warriors, peasants, artisans, and merchants. Intermarriage was forbidden. The emperor and court were at the top of the social hierarchy. Next came the warrior class, composed of the shogun, daimyo, samurai, and ronin, in order of decreasing importance. Daimyo served the shogun and samurai served the daimyo. Ronin were warriors without masters who traveled around in search of work. Next down were farmers, who had a privileged position but were often poor. Artisans such as carpenters and sword makers came next. The lowest class was the merchants because they profited from the labor of others. At the very bottom were Japan’s outcasts, the eta. The Tokugawa enacted strict laws to regulate the eta’s places of residence, dress, and hairstyles.
The role of women became more restricted, a bit more in the samurai class, where Confucian values were regarded more highly than among commoners. Males had broad authority over property, divorce, and marriage. The wife moved in with the husband’s family. If she did not meet their expectations, the husband often divorced her. Even so, both sexes worked in the fields.